Contra la ética de la ecología del miedo
Por un cambio en los fines de la intervención en la naturaleza
Palavras-chave:
antropocentrismo, ecologia do medo, especismo, intervençãoResumo
Os seres humanos intervêm frequentemente na natureza por motivações antropocêntricas ou ambientalistas. Um exemplo de tais intervenções consiste na reintrodução dos lobos em áreas nas quais eles viveram outrora com a finalidade de criar o que tem sido conhecido como uma “ecologia do medo”. Na primeira parte deste artigo, discutem-se as razões que têm sido manejadas a favor desta medida e explica-se que estas são incompatíveis com um enfoque não especista. Para tanto, expõe-se os motivos pelos quais tal medida prejudica notadamente animais como os cervos, sem ser tampouco benéfica aos próprios lobos. Por conseguinte, argumenta-se que se abandonamos uma perspectiva especista, devemos modificar completamente o modo através do qual intervimos na natureza. Ao invés de intervir por motivações ecologistas ou antropocêntricas, nossa finalidade deve ser reduzir os danos sofridos pelos animais não-humanos. A visão idílica segundo a qual os animais não-humanos vivem vidas paradisíacas na natureza é totalmente incorreta e, com efeito, existem razões suficientes para considerar que o sofrimento e a morte prematura prevalecem de forma clara sobre a felicidade destes animais. Faz-se ainda mais importante que nosso fim seja melhorar sua situação e oferecer-lhes nossa ajuda em lugar de causar-lhes danos. Isto entra em um significativo conflito com alguns ideais ecologistas fundamentais cuja defesa não é compatível com a consideração dos interesses dos animais não-humanos.
Referências
Aristóteles. 2004. Política, traducción de Manuela García Valdés, Madrid, Tecnos.
BBC News. 1999. “Call for return of Scottish wolves”, BBC, 17 de septiembre. Disponible en: http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/sci/tech/specials/sheffield_99/450318.stm, visitado el 29 de marzo de 2015.
——— 2002. “Call for wolves to be reintroduced”, BBC, 25 de junio. Disponible en: http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/uk_news/scotland/2065794.stm, visitado el 29 de marzo de 2015.
——— 2008. “Call for serious debate on wolf”. BBC, 2 de marzo. Disponible en: http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/uk_news/scotland/highlands_and_islands/7268765.stm, visitado el 29 de marzo de 2015.
Beyer, H. L.; Merrill, E. H.; Varley, N., y Boyce, M. S. 2007. “Willow on Yellowstone's northern range: evidence for a trophic cascade?”, Ecological Applications, vol. 17, 1563-1571.
Beschta, R. L. y Ripple, W. J. 2010. “Recovering riparian plant communities with wolves in northern Yellowstone, USA”, Restoration Ecology, vol. 18, 380-389.
Blanco, J. C. 2000. “Large carnivore damage in Spain”, Carnivore Damage Prevention News, vol. 1, 5–6.
Bonnardel, Y. 1996. “Contre l’apartheid des espèces: À propos de la prédation et de l’opposition entre écologie et libération animale”, Les cahiers antispécistes”, vol. 14. Disponible en : http://www.cahiers-antispecistes.org/article.php3?id_article=103, visitado el 29 de marzo de 2015.
Callicott, J. B. 1989. In defense of the land ethic: Essays in environmental philosophy, Albany, State University of New York.
——— 1990. “The case against moral pluralism”, Environmental Ethics, vol. 12, 99–124.
——— 2000. “The land ethic”, en A Companion to Environmental Philosophy, 204–217, ed. D. Jamieson, Oxford, Blackwell.
Carruthers, P. 1992. The animal issue: moral theory in practice, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Christianson, D. y Creel, S. 2010. “A nutritionally mediated risk effect of wolves on elk”, Ecology, vol. 91, 1184–1191.
Clutton-Brock, T. H., Coulson, T. y Milner, J. M. 2004. “Red deer stocks in the Highlands of Scotland”, Nature, vol. 429, 261–262.
Colyvan, M. (2008) “Population Ecology”, en Sarkar, Sahotra y Plutynski, Anya (eds.) A Companion to the Philosophy of Biology, Hoboken, Wiley-Blackwell, 301–320.
Cowen, T. 2003. “Policing nature”, Environmental Ethics, vol. 25, 169–182.
Creel, S., Winnie, J. A. y Christianson, D. 2009. “Glucocorticoid stress hormones and the effect of predation risk on elk reproduction”, Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, vol. 106, 12388–12393.
Cunha, L. C. y Garmendia, G. 2013. “Por que os danos naturais deveriam ser considerados de igual importância moral?”, Synesis, vol. 5, 32-53. Disponible en: http://seer.ucp.br/seer/index.php?journal=synesis&page=article&op=view&path%5B%5D=278&path%5B%5D=223, visitado el 6 de julio de 2015.
Descartes, R. 1930. Discours de la méthode, Paris, Vrin.
Dorado, D. 2012. “Una aproximación bibliográfica al problema del mal en la naturaleza”, Revista de Bioética y Derecho, vol. 26, 55–59. Disponible en: http://www.ub.edu/fildt/revista/pdf/rbyd26_animal.pdf, visitado el 6 de julio de 2015.
Faria, C. 2012. “Muerte entre las flores: el conflicto entre el ecologismo y la defensa de los animales no humanos”, Viento Sur, vol. 125, 67–76. Disponible en: http://www.vientosur.info/IMG/pdf/VS125_C_Faria_Muerte_entre_flores.pdf, visitado el 8 de julio de 2015.
——— 2013. “Differential obligations towards others in need”, Astrolabio, vol. 15, 242–246. Disponible en: http://www.raco.cat/index.php/Astrolabio/article/viewFile/275058/363046, visitado el 8 de julio de 2015.
Faria, C., & Paez, E. (2015). “Animals in Need: the Problem of Wild Animal Suffering and Intervention in Nature”. Relations. Beyond Anthropocentrism, vol. 3, nº 1, 7-13. Disponible en:
http://www.ledonline.it/index.php/Relations/article/view/816/660, visitado el 11 de julio de 2015.
Fink, Ch. K. 2005. “The predation argument”, Between the Species, vol. 5. Disponible en: http://digitalcommons.calpoly.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1041&context=bts, visitado el 29 de marzo de 2015.
Hadley, J. 2006. “The duty to aid nonhuman animals in dire need”, Journal of Applied Philosophy, vol. 23, 445-451.
Hargrove, E. 1992. “Foundations of wildlife protection attitudes”, en The Animal Rights/Environmental Ethics Debate: The Environmental Perspective, 151–83, ed. E. C. Hargrove, Albany, State University of New York.
Hedrick, P. W. y Fredrickson, R. J. 2008. “Captive breeding and the reintroduction of Mexican and red wolves”, Molecular Ecology, vol. 17, 344-350.
Horta, O. 2010. “Debunking the idyllic view of natural processes: Population dynamics and suffering in the wild”, Télos, vol. 17, 73–88.
——— 2013. “Zoopolis, intervention, and the state or nature”, Law, Ethics and Philosophy, vol. 1, 113–125. Disponible en: http://www.raco.cat/index.php/LEAP/article/view/294784/383317, visitado el 7 de julio de 2015.
Kauffman, M. J. ; Brodie, J. F. y Jules, E. S. 2010. “Are wolves saving Yellowstone’s aspen? A landscape-level test of a behaviorally mediated trophic cascade”, Ecology, vol. 91, 2742–2755.
Laundre, J. W., Hernandez, L. y Ripple, W. J. 2010. “The landscape of fear: Ecological implications of being afraid”, The Open Ecology Journal, vol. 3, 1–7.
Leopold, A. 2000. Una ética de la tierra, Madrid, Los libros de la Catarata.
Linkola, P. 2009. Can life prevail?: A radical approach to the environmental crisis, London, Integral Tradition Publishing.
Manning, A. D., Gordon, I. J. y Ripple, W. J. 2009. “Restoring landscapes of fear with wolves in the Scottish Highlands”, Biological Conservation, vol. 142, 2314–2321.
Martínez Gutiérrez, P. G. 2007. Detección de áreas potenciales para la reintroducción del lobo mexicano (Canis lupus baileyi) en México (tesis de grado), Xalapa, Instituto de Ecología.
Mech, L. D. 1995. “The challenge and opportunity of recovering wolf populations”, Conservation Biology, vol. 9, 270–278.
——— 2012. “Is science in danger of sanctifying the wolf?”, Biological Conservation, vol. 150, 143-149.
Morgan, J. 2007. “Crying wolf, now with added bite”, The Herald, 1 de febrero. Disponible en: http://www.heraldscotland.com/crying-wolf-now-with-added-bite-1.839418, visitado el 30 de marzo de 2015.
Morris, M. C. y Thornhill, R. H. 2006. “Animal liberationist responses to non-anthropogenic animal suffering”, Worldviews, vol. 10, 355–379.
Mosquera, J. 2015. “The Harm They Inflict When Values Conflict”, Relations: Beyond Anthropocentrism, vol 3, nº 1, 65-77. Disponible en: http://www.ledonline.it/index.php/Relations/article/view/822/664, visitado el 11 de julio de 2015.
Næss, A. 2005. The selected works of Arne Næss. Deep ecology of wisdom, vol. X, Dordrecht, Springer.
Ng, Y.-K. 1995. “Towards welfare biology: Evolutionary economics of animal consciousness and suffering”, Biology and Philosophy, vol. 10, 255–85.
Nilsen, E. B., Milner-Gulland, E. J., Schofield, L., Mysterud, A., Stenseth, N. C. y Coulson, T. 2007. “Wolf reintroduction to Scotland: public attitudes and consequences for red deer management”, Proceedings of the Royal Society: Series B, Biological Sciences, vol. 274, 995–1002.
Norton, B. G. 1987. Why preserve natural variety?, Princeton, Princeton University Press.
Nussbaum, M. C. 2006. Frontiers of Justice: Disability, nationality, species membership, Cambridge, Harvard University Press.
O’Connell, S. 2008. “Back from the dead: could wolves and wild boar roam Britain again?”, The Independent, 10 de abril. Disponible en http://www.independent.co.uk/environment/nature/back-from-the-dead-could-wolves-and-wild-boar-roam-britain-again-806900.html, visitado el 30 de marzo de 2015.
Olivier, D. 1993. “Pourquoi je ne suis pas écologiste”, Les cahiers antispécistes, vol. 14. Disponible en: http://www.cahiers-antispecistes.org/spip.php?article52, visitado el 30 de marzo de 2015.
Pianka, E. R. 1970. “On r and K selection”, American Naturalist, vol. 104, 592–597.
Preisser, E. L., Bolnick, D. I. y Benard, M. F. 2005. “Scared to death? The effects of intimidation and consumption in predator–prey interactions”, Ecology, vol. 86, 501–509.
Prugh, L. R., Stoner, Ch. J., Epps, C. W., Bean, W. T., Ripple, W. J., Laliberte, A. S. y Brashares, J. S. 2009. “The rise of the mesopredator”, Bioscience, vol. 59, 779–791.
Reichmann, J. 2000. Evolution, animal ‘rights’ and the environment, Washington, The Catholic University of America Press.
Ripple, W. J. y Beschta, R. L. 2004. “Wolves and the ecology of fear: Can predation risk structure ecosystems?” BioScience, vol. 54, 123–138.
Ripple, W. J. y Beschta, R. L. 2007. “Restoring Yellowstone’s aspen with wolves”, Biological Conservation, vol. 138, 514–519.
Ripple, W. J. y Larsen, E. J. 2000. “Historic Aspen recruitment, elk, and wolves in Northern Yellowstone National Park, USA”, Biological Conservation, vol. 95, 361–370.
Sagoff, M. 1984. “Animal liberation and environmental ethics: Bad marriage, quick divorce”, Osgoode Hall Law Journal, vol. 22, 297-307.
Sapontzis, S. 1984. “Predation”, Ethics and Animals, vol. 5, 27–38. Disponible en: http://digitalcommons.calpoly.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1220&context=ethicsandanimals, visitado el 11 de julio de 2015.
Scanlon, Th. M. 1998. What we owe to each other, Cambridge, Belknap.
Scottish Government Rural and Environment Research and Analysis Directorate. 2010. Agriculture facts and figures, Edinburgh, Scottish Government Rural and Environment Research and Analysis Directorate, The Scottish Government. Disponible en: http://www.scotland.gov.uk/Resource/Doc/314320/0099836.pdf, visitado el 30 de marzo de 2015.
Shelton, J.-A. 2004. “Killing animals that don’t fit in: Moral dimensions of habitat restoration”, Between the Species, vol. 13, nº 4, 1–21. Disponible en: http://digitalcommons.calpoly.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1048&context=bts, visitado el 30 de marzo de 2015.
Singer, F. J. 1996 (ed.) Effects of grazing by wild ungulates in Yellowstone National Park, Technical Report NPS/NRYELL/NRTR/96-01. USDI NPS, Natural Resource Program Center, Denver.
Smith, D. W. 2005. “Ten years of Yellowstone wolves, 1995–2005”, Yellowstone Science, vol. 13, 7–33.
Smith, D. W., Stahler, D. R., Albers, E., Metz, M., Williamson, L., Ehlers, N., Cassidy, K., Irving, J., Raymond, R., Almberg, E. y McIntyre, R. 2009. Yellowstone wolf project: Annual report, 2008, Yellowstone National Park: Yellowstone Center for Resources, National Park Service.
Smith, J. A. 1991. “A question of pain in invertebrates”, Institute for Laboratory Animal Research Journal, vol. 33, 25–32. Disponible en: http://ilarjournal.oxfordjournals.org/content/33/1-2/25.full, visitado el 7 de julio de 2015.
Sözmen, B. I. 2013. “Harm in the wild: Facing non-human suffering in nature”, Ethical Theory and Moral Practice, vol. 16, 1075–1088.
Stearns, S. C. 1992. The evolution of life histories, Oxford, Oxford University Press.
Taylor, P. 1986. Respect for nature, Princeton, Princeton University Press.
Tomasik, B. próxima publicación en 2015. “The Importance of Wild-Animal Suffering”, Relations: Beyond Anthropocentrism, vol. 3, nº 2.
Torres Aldave, M. 2011. “De lobos y ovejas: ¿les debemos algo a los animales salvajes?”, Ágora: Papeles de Filosofía, vol. 30, 77–98. Disponible en: https://dspace.usc.es/bitstream/10347/7397/3/79-100.pdf, visitado el 8 de julio de 2015.
Vanguardia, 2012. “Son envenenados lobos liberados en Sonora”, Vanguardia, 21 de febrero. Disponible en: http://www.vanguardia.com.mx/sonenvenenadoslobosliberadosensonora-1223385.html, visitado el 30 de marzo de 2015.
Varner, G. 2002. “Biocentric individualism”, en Environmental ethics: What really matters, what really works, 108–120, ed. D. Schmidtz y E. Willot. Oxford, Oxford University Press.
Wagner, F. H; con la colaboración de Hamilton, W. L. y Keigley, R. B. 2006. Yellowstone’s Destabilized Ecosystem: Elk Effects, Science, and Policy Conflict: Elk Effects, Science, and Policy Conflict, New York, Oxford University Press.
Watson Featherstone, A. 1997. “The wild heart of the Highlands”, Ecos, vol. 18, 48–61.
Whewell, W. 1852. Lectures on the history of moral philosophy in England, John Parker, London.
White, P. J., Smith, D. W., Duffield, J. W., Jimenez, M., McEneaney, T. y Plumb, G. 2005. “Yellowstone after wolves: Environmental impact statement predictions and ten-year appraisals”, Yellowstone Science, vol. 13, 34–41.
Wilson, C. J. 2004. “Could we live with reintroduced large carnivores in the UK?”, Mammal Review, vol. 34, 211–232.
Zamora Bárcenas, D. F. 2011. Análisis de viabilidad poblacional del lobo mexicano (Canis lupus baileyi) en Sierra Madre Occidental, tesis de grado, Querétaro, Universidad Autónoma de Querétaro.
Downloads
Publicado
Edição
Seção
Licença
Este trabalho está licenciado sob uma licença Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike 4.0 International License.
La Revista Latinoamericana de Estudios Críticos Animales con ISSN 2346-920X se adhiere a las diferentes iniciativas que promueven el acceso libre al conocimiento, por lo que todos los contenidos de la misma son de acceso libre y gratuito y publicados bajo la licencia Creative Commons, que permite su difusión pero impide la alteración de la obra e incluye siempre mención al autor/a y fuente.
Es decir, una licencia de tipo Atribución-NoComercial-SinObraDerivada.
Por ello, los correos electrónicos de los autores se encontrarán a disposición de los lectores, en caso de que deseen contactarlos personalmente.
